Memories are stored in other parts of the body, not just the brain

We’ve all been told that many short study sessions beat a marathon “cramming in” long nights. This basic idea—called the signal spacing effect—appears again and again in memory research.

Here’s the twist: Signs of this memory spacing effect don’t stop at neurons in the brain.

A surprising laboratory study reveals that spacing chemical signals also boosts both response strength and memory in normal, everyday human cells, not just neurons.

Additionally, as with memory stored in neurons in the brain, the pattern and timing of signals also matters for memory in other human cell types. Cellular responses to spaced burst signals last longer, even when the total signal is the same.

This study suggests that the same “rules of learning” that apply to students in the classroom also apply at the molecular level – an incredible concept, to say the least.

Studying spaced cues and memory

Researchers at New York University grew non-neural human cells in dishes and gave them a built-in “reporter” that briefly switches on when a certain gene change turns on.

The reporter used a form of fire-fighting luciferase, which is controlled by a DNA element called the CAMP response element (CREB).

When the CREB protein is activated, the glow increases then fades quickly, so the signal reports what is happening now, not what happened earlier. Think of it as a live dashboard for whether the cell’s “learning” machine is currently engaged.

Next, they needed a way to “train” the cells. In animals, certain chemicals, such as the neurotransmitter serotonin, can trigger the molecular cascades that help form long-term memories.

The researchers used two lab tools that hit parts of these same cascades: forskolin, which stimulates a signaling pathway that activates an enzyme called protein kinase A (PKA), and a phorbol ester called TPA, which activates another enzyme called Protein Kinas C (PKC).

These alphabet soups – CREB, PKA, PKC – are all proteins that carry messages inside cells and ultimately influence genes.

You can think of them as messengers who carry a beat from the outside world into the cell’s control room, where DNA decisions are made.

Signals spaced versus massaged signals

When the scientists gave the cells a large pulse of “mass” signal, the reporter lit up. But when they gave the cells several short pulses spaced by short pauses — four hits, separated by a few minutes — the glow was stronger and lasted longer.

The memory spacing effect maintained whether the scientists used the PKA route, the PKC route, or both. The cells weren’t just counting the total dose – they were reading the rhythm.

This behavior matches what memory studies have shown in animals and people for more than a century.

“This reflects the effect of masked space in action,” says Kukushkin, associate professor of clinical life science at NYU Liberal Studies and researcher at NYU’s Center for Neural Science.

“This shows that the ability to learn from spaced repetition is not unique to brain cells, but, in fact, might be a fundamental property of all cells.”

In study after study, well-timed events can lead to more lasting memory changes than long exposure. In cells, this “lasting change” appears as a more lasting increase in gene activity.

If this sounds like “learning,” that’s because at the molecular level, it kind of is. Learning in neurons depends on waves of activity that fuel CREB, which then turns on the sets of genes that change the behavior of cells over hours or days.

Signal spacing patterns and memory

The biochemical circuits carried by normal cells can integrate impulses over time and give a greater and longer lasting response to spaced signals than to massed signals.

Next, to understand how this process actually works, the researchers looked ahead to CREB at another key player, Erk. It is a protein kinase known for its impulse in response to stimuli.

They found that spaced stimulation produced stronger and more sustained activation of ERK and CREB than massed stimulation.

When the team blocked Erk or interfered with CREB, the spacing advantage disappeared. This result is linked to the effect of the same molecular players that have always been linked to long-term memory in neurons.

Real-world implications

Why is this important? Because this discovery completely reframes “learning” as not just a brain trick, but also a general principle of how cells process information over time.

Cells are not just on/off machines; They notice patterns – the number of pulses, the spacing between them – and they do calculations with those patterns.

This idea has practical uses. Researchers and clinicians often focus on how much medicine to give. The dose is important, but the timing can be important.

In some cases, smaller amounts delivered in pulses could push cells toward stronger or more useful gene responses than a single large dose. Timing therefore becomes a real-world design tool.

Limitations and next steps

As thorough as this research is, there are still limitations to consider.

This study used immortalized human cell lines, engineered “reporters,” and controlled stimuli. Real tissues juggle many signals at once and include feedback from neighboring cells and the immune system. This complexity can shape how timing plays out.

However, even with these limitations, these dish experiments make one clear point: you can see spacing rules inside single cells without wiring.

This helps isolate steps that carry timing information and suggests clear follow-ups, such as testing different intervals, pulse numbers, or pathway combinations in primary cells and organoids.

Spacing, memory and human cells

To sum it all up, these scientists found that four short, properly spaced chemical pulses trigger stronger, longer-lasting gene activation than one longer pulse in human cells.

This “spacing effect” fits with higher and longer activation of ERK and CREB – two molecular players already known to be crucial for memory in neurons – and blocking ERK or CREB erases the spacing advantage.

Spacing isn’t just a study habit. It is a principle written in cell signaling. When signals arrive in well-timed bursts, cells can lock into a stronger, longer-lasting response than they do after a mass burst.

“Learning and memory are usually associated with brains and brain cells, but our study shows that other cells in the body can also learn and form memories,” says Nikolay V. Kukushkin of New York University, the lead author of the study.

Kukushkin and his team proved that features of learning do not require a brain or even a neuron—they can emerge from the timing-dependent dynamics of signaling networks that many cell types share.

This insight could help scientists build better models of memory, design smarter drug programs, and explore “cellular cognition” as a broader biological principle.

The full study was published in the journal Nature Communications.

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